I am approaching the final sessions of my Pilgrims andPuritans lecture series where I will contrast the theocratic vision of the
Pilgrims and Puritans and their modern heirs with the democratic principles enshrined
in the U.S. Constitution. That contrast requires giving attention to James
Madison, the U.S. Constitution’s principal architect, and his vision of
government. So, I am going to ramble on here a bit about Madison, the Constitution, power, and moral character.
From Articles to Architecture
By the summer of 1786, just five years after the Articles of
Confederation took effect, it was painfully clear that the national government created
by the Articles was too weak to meet the country’s needs. Congress tried to
patch the system with amendments, but gaining the unanimous consent from
thirteen states required by the Articles proved impossible.
In 1787 Congress changed its approach and invited the states
to send delegates to revise the Articles. Madison, convinced the Articles were beyond
repair, arrived with a bold blueprint for a new government. Within weeks he had
persuaded the delegates to abandon revision and an entirely new Constitution. Congress
was so feeble at the time that the Convention did not even bother to inform it
of the change in direction,
The underlying question before the delegates—and later the
states—was this: could they create a federal
government strong enough to unify the nation and meet its challenges a still be
limited enough that fundamental rights would be protected. Madison believed it
was. Others disagreed.
The Bill of Rights: A Necessary Rick
As the Convention concluded, opposition to a constitution
that created a powerful federal government remained fierce. George Mason,
Madison’s fellow Virginian, proposed a solution: add a Bill of Rights. Madison
initially resisted. He feared that listing specific rights might imply that any
unlisted rights were fair game for government infringement—thus expanding
federal power rather than limiting it leading to tyranny.
Structure as Safeguard
Madison argued that a Bill of Rights was unnecessary. The
Constitution itself—through its architecture—would be the true guardian of
liberty. Simply put, Madison believed that a well-structured governmental
system was the best safeguard against corruption and tyranny.
His structural safeguards included the separation of powers
and a system of checks and balances, ensuring that no single branch of
government could dominate. This framework was not merely theoretical—it was a
practical mechanism to prevent corruption and tyranny. Each branch would serve
as a check on the others, creating a dynamic equilibrium that preserved
liberty.
He also made the legislative process slow, included a
difficult constitutional amendment process, and provided for the indirect
election of officials, such as the president (through the electoral college) and
senators (elected by state legislatures). Madison designed these mechanisms to
temper popular passions and encourage deliberation. Madison feared that direct
democracy could lead to mob rule or the rise of demagogues. By inserting layers
of representation and procedure, he hoped to cultivate a more thoughtful and
stable government.
The Role of Character in Governance
Madison was a master political engineer who passionately
believed that a well-designed government, anchored in the separation of
powers and a system of checks and balances, would prevent a slide into tyranny.
He also understood that no democratic system would survive without virtuous
leaders and frequently addressed the need for good character in government
officials, emphasizing wisdom, virtue, integrity, and competence as essential
traits for a good political leadership.
Madison believed that a system of enumerated powers and structural
safeguards like the separation of powers and checks and balances would support
the rise of public servants of good character, mitigate the impact of human
flaws, and prevent the abuse of power, corruption, and the violation of fundamental
rights. Structure would check ambition.
Was Madison Right?
Madison placed his faith in a system of enumerated powers,
structural safeguards, and the moral compass of public servants. Over the past
two centuries, that faith has been tested—sometimes severely. We might ask: Was
Madison’s confidence in constitutional design justified? Or did he
underestimate the fragility of virtue and the resilience of ambition? Madison’s
vision certainly invites us to reflect not only on the limits of power, but on
the enduring challenge of cultivating character in those who wield it.
